Europe After Hours: Mapping Non-Standard Working Time

Abstract

In recent years, non-standard working hours have become a prominent concern in both scientific research and public debate across Europe. Societal expectations for around-the-clock convenience—such as late-evening grocery shopping, Sunday retail access, rapid global delivery of consumer goods, and weekday dining options—have contributed to the rise of work schedules that are increasingly flexible, extended, and irregular (Arrowsmith & Pulignano, 2013; Burgoon & Raess, 2009; Doellgast & Berg, 2018).

These developments reflect structural economic shifts that prioritise immediacy and availability, placing new demands on organisations and workers alike (Anttila & Oinas, 2018; Dablanc et al., 2017). In addition to these structural drivers, long work hour cultures that interpret unpaid overtime in evenings and weekends as a sign of job- and career-commitment, have emerged in some countries and sectors, like in consultancy and legal services (Chung, 2020; Wharton & Blair-Loy, 2016; Williams et al., 2013).

Concerns about burnout and mental health are widespread, as many employees continue to experience elevated workloads and regularly work beyond standard hours due to expanding opening times, extended production cycles, and persistent organisational demands (Hu et al., 2016; Rabenu & Aharoni-Goldenberg, 2017; Ruderman et al., 2017; Weston et al., 2024). Concerns are particularly large in regard to mothers – or fathers with substantial caregiving tasks -, who combine time-intensive jobs with care responsibilities, or experience negative career impacts from being unable to work long and non-standard hours (Blair-Loy, 2005; Tanquerel & Grau-Grau, 2020; Williams et al., 2013).